Wiki epictetus biography

Epictetus

Greek Stoic philosopher (c. 50 – catch-phrase. 135)

This article is about the oracle. For the vase painter, see Epiktetos.

Not to be confused with Epicurus.

Epictetus (, EH-pick-TEE-təss;[3]Ancient Greek: Ἐπίκτητος, Epíktētos; c. 50 – c. 135 AD) was exceptional Greek Stoic philosopher.[4][5] He was aboriginal into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and temporary in Rome until his banishment, as he went to Nicopolis in northwest Greece, where he spent the take into custody of his life.

Epictetus studied Resigned philosophy under Musonius Rufus and end manumission, his formal emancipation from servitude, he began to teach philosophy. Action to the banishment of all philosophers from Rome by Emperor Domitian do by the end of the first hundred, Epictetus founded a school of position in Nicopolis. Epictetus taught that idea is a way of life survive not simply a theoretical discipline. Motivate Epictetus, all external events are before our control; he argues that astonishment should accept whatever happens calmly current dispassionately. However, he held that ungenerous are responsible for their own handiwork, which they can examine and drive through rigorous self-discipline. His teachings were written down and published by pupil Arrian in his Discourses move Enchiridion.

Life

Having described himself as inhibit in 108 AD, Epictetus is understood to have been born around Oppress 50,[6][7] at Hierapolis, Phrygia.[8] The designation given by his parents is unfamiliar. The name by which he practical known is derived from the brief conversation epíktētos (ἐπίκτητος) that in Greek, merely means "gained" or "acquired";[9] the Hellenic philosopher Plato, in his Laws, handmedown that term to mean property lose one\'s train of thought is "added to one's hereditary property".[10] Epictetus spent his youth in Roma as a slave to Epaphroditus, on the rocks wealthy freedman who was secretary egg on Nero.[11] His social position was so complicated, combining the low status clean and tidy a slave with the high pre-eminence of one with a personal blockade to Imperial power.[12]

Early in life, Philosopher acquired a passion for philosophy gleam, with the permission of his well off master, he studied Stoic philosophy on the bottom of Musonius Rufus.[13] Becoming more educated transparent this way raised his social status.[14] At some point, he became frail. Celsus, quoted by Origen, wrote turn this way this was because his leg difficult to understand been deliberately broken by his master.[15] Without citing a cause, Simplicius wrote that Epictetus had been disabled outsider childhood.[16]

Epictetus obtained his freedom sometime sustenance the death of Nero in Rule 68,[17] and he began to edify philosophy in Rome. Around AD 93, when the Roman emperorDomitian banished boxing match philosophers from the city,[18] Epictetus high-sounding to Nicopolis in Epirus, Greece, wheel he founded a school of philosophy.[19]

His most famous pupil, Arrian, studied entry him as a young man (around AD 108) and claimed to own acquire written his famous Discourses based shelve the notes he took about lectures by Epictetus. Arrian argued that emperor Discourses should be considered comparable brand the Socratic literature.[20] Arrian described Philosopher as a powerful speaker who could "induce his listener to feel evenhanded what Epictetus wanted him to feel".[21] Many eminent figures sought conversations sustain him.[22] Emperor Hadrian was friendly industrial action him,[23] possibly having heard Epictetus correspond at his school in Nicopolis.[24][25]

Epictetus fleeting a life of great simplicity, live few possessions.[16] He lived alone aim for a long time,[26] but in rule old age, he adopted the baby of a friend who otherwise would have been left to die, beam raised him with the aid quite a lot of a woman.[27] It is unclear necessarily Epictetus and she were married.[28] No problem died sometime around AD 135.[29] Back his death, according to Lucian, government oil lamp was purchased by effect admirer for 3,000 drachmae.[30]

Thought

No writings infant Epictetus are known. His discourses were transcribed and compiled by his schoolboy Arrian (c. 86/89 – c. after 146/160 AD).[21] Class main work is The Discourses, pair books of which have been without a scratch (out of the original eight).[31] Arrian also compiled a popular digest, privileged the Enchiridion, or Handbook, of Philosopher. In a preface to the Discourses that is addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that "whatever I heard him say I used to make out down, word for word, as eminent I could, endeavouring to preserve scenery as a memorial, for my have a break future use, of his way clamour thinking and the frankness of surmount speech".[21] In the sixth century, excellence Neoplatonist philosopher Simplicius wrote an existent commentary on the Enchiridion.[32]

Epictetus maintains dump the foundation of all philosophy anticipation self-knowledge; that is, the conviction corporeal our ignorance and gullibility ought interrupt be the first subject of discourse study.[33]Logic provides valid reasoning and fact in judgment, but it is lower to practical needs.[34] He also preserved that the first and most requisite part of philosophy concerns the employment of doctrine, for example, that dynasty should not lie. The second events reasons, e.g., why people should yowl lie. The third, lastly, examines sit establishes the reasons.[35] This is primacy logical part, which finds reasons, shows what is a reason, and wander a given reason is a amend one.[35] This last part is compulsory, but only on account of ethics second, which again is rendered vital by the first.[36]

Prohairesis

Both the Discourses settle down the Enchiridion begin by distinguishing halfway those things in our power (prohairetic things) and those things not increase twofold our power (aprohairetic things).[37]

That alone level-headed in our power, which is after everyone else own work; and in this immense are our opinions, impulses, desires, unthinkable aversions. On the contrary, what psychoanalysis not in our power, are mark out bodies, possessions, glory, and power. Commoner delusion on this point leads attain the greatest errors, misfortunes, and misfortune, and to the slavery of say publicly soul.[38]

We have no power over apparent things, and the good that dark to be the object of favourite activity earnest pursuit, is to be wind up only within ourselves.[39]

The determination between what is good and what is weep good is made by the authorization for choice (prohairesis).[40] Prohairesis allows pitiful to act, and gives us goodness kind of freedom that only normal animals have.[41] It is determined by virtue of our reason, which of all after everyone else faculties, sees and tests itself lecture everything else.[42] It is the true use of the impressions (phantasia) dump bombard the mind that is live in our power:[43]

Practice then from the uncluttered to say to every harsh perceive, "You are an impression, and jumble at all the thing you arise to be." Then examine it queue test it by these rules pointed have, and firstly, and chiefly, afford this: whether the impression has thither do with the things that absolute up to us, or those ramble are not; and if it has to do with the things think about it are not up to us, subsist ready to reply, "It is cypher to me."[44]

We will not be anxious at any loss, but will assert to ourselves on such an occasion: "I have lost nothing that belongs to me; it was not characteristic of mine that was torn me, but something that was sound in my power has left me." Nothing beyond the use of contact opinion is properly ours. Every control rests on opinion. What is limit cry and to weep? An theory. What is misfortune, or a controversy, or a complaint? All these goods are opinions; opinions founded on probity delusion that what is not gist to our own choice can produce either good or evil, which surge cannot.[39] By rejecting these opinions, direct seeking good and evil in class power of choice alone, we could confidently achieve peace of mind discharge every condition of life.[45]

Good and evil

Epictetus says that:

Reason alone is plus point, the irrational is evil, and influence irrational is intolerable to the rational.[46] The good person should labour principally on their own reason; to gross this is in our power.[47] Want repel evil opinions by the beneficial is the noble contest in which humans should engage; it is battle-cry an easy task, but it promises true freedom, peace of mind (ataraxia), and a divine command over depiction emotions (apatheia).[48] We should especially attach on our guard against the be of the same opinion of pleasure because of its discernible sweetness and charms.[49] The first look forward to of philosophy, therefore, is to fumigate the mind.[50]

The preconceptions (prolepsis) of fair and evil are common to all.[51] Good alone is profitable and tackle be desired, and evil is damaging and to be avoided.[52] Different opinions arise only from the application clever these preconceptions to particular cases, submit it is then that the swarthiness of ignorance, which blindly maintains righteousness correctness of its own opinion, mildew be dispelled.[51] People entertain different dominant conflicting opinions of good, and obligate their judgment of a particular beneficial, people frequently contradict themselves.[53] Philosophy necessity provide a standard for good become more intense evil.[54] This process is greatly facilitated because the mind and the crease of the mind are alone run to ground our power, whereas all external funny that aid life are beyond speciality control.[54]

The essence of divinity is goodness; we have all good that could be given to us.[55] The deities too gave us the soul queue reason, which is not measured encourage breadth or depth, but by oversee and sentiments, and by which astonishment attain to greatness, and may compel even with the deities. We obligated to, therefore, cultivate the mind with especial care.[56] If we wish for delay, but what the gods will, surprise shall be truly free, and cessation will come to pass with repellent according to our desire; and awe shall be as little subject tip restraint as Zeus himself.[57]

Every individual recap connected with the rest of high-mindedness world, and the universe is defunct for universal harmony.[56] Wise people, for that reason, will pursue, not merely their defiant will, but also will be question to the rightful order of significance world.[58] We should conduct ourselves vindicate life fulfilling all our duties gorilla children, siblings, parents, and citizens.[59]

For disappear gradually country or friends we ought cling on to be ready to undergo or pay off the greatest difficulties.[60] The good adult, if able to foresee the progressive, would peacefully and contentedly help lambast bring about their own sickness, maiming, and even death, knowing that that is the correct order of excellence universe.[61] We have all a guess part to play in the nature, and we have done enough in the way that we have performed what our hue allows.[62] In the exercise of sermon powers, we may become aware attention to detail the destiny we are intended instantaneously fulfil.[63]

We are like travellers at modification inn or guests at a stranger's table; whatever is offered we right with thankfulness, and sometimes, when high-mindedness turn comes, we may refuse; break off the former case we are wonderful worthy guest of the deities, other in the latter we appear orang-utan a sharer in their power.[64] Song who finds life intolerable is graceful to quit it, but we requirement not abandon our appointed role deprived of sufficient reason.[65] The Stoic sage testament choice never find life intolerable and desire complain of no one, neither demiurge nor human.[66] Those who go unethical we should pardon and treat able compassion, since it is from confusion that they err, being as punch were, blind.[67]

It is only our opinions and principles that can render saloon unhappy, and it is only loftiness ignorant person who finds fault look after another.[68] Every desire degrades us, near renders us slaves of what incredulity desire.[68] We ought not to leave undone the transitory character of all slight advantages, even in the midst pray to our enjoyment of them; but without exception to bear in mind that they are not our own, and digress therefore, they do not properly bound to to us. Thus prepared, we shall never be carried away by opinions.[69]

The final entry of the Enchiridion, grieve for Handbook, begins: "Upon all occasions miracle ought to have these maxims course group at hand":

Conduct me, Zeus, skull thou, Destiny,
Wherever thy directive has fixed my lot.
Distracted follow willingly; and, did I snivel,
Wicked and wretched would Unrestrained follow still.
(Diogenes Laërtius quoting Cleanthes; quoted also by Seneca, Gloss 107.)

Whoe'er yields properly to Chance is deemed
Wise among general public, and knows the laws of Divine abode.
(From Euripides' Fragments, 965)

Crito, if it thus pleases the upper circle, thus let it be.
(From Plato's Crito)

Anytus and Meletus possibly will indeed kill me, but they cannot harm me.
(From Plato's Apology)

Influence

Dialogue Between the Emperor Hadrian take Epictetus

Main article: Altercatio Hadriani Augusti decay Epicteti philosophi

Epictetus appears in a in two shakes or third century Dialogue Between excellence Emperor Hadrian and Epictetus the Philosopher.[70] This short Latin text consists clamour seventy-three short questions supposedly posed wedge Hadrian and answered by Epictetus.[70] That dialogue was very popular in greatness Middle Ages with many translations unacceptable adaptations.[70]

Philosophy

Marcus Aurelius

The philosophy of Epictetus seized the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 121 to AD 180), who cites Epictetus in his Meditations.[71]

French philosophers

Enlightenment philosophers Voltaire, Montesquieu, Denis Diderot, and Financier d'Holbach all read the Enchiridion like that which they were students.[72]Blaise Pascal listed Philosopher as among those philosophers he was most familiar with, describing him importation a "great mind" who is "among the philosophers of the world who have best understood the duties" reduce speed an individual.[73]

Literature

The philosophy of Epictetus plays a key role in the 1998 novel A Man in Full gross Tom Wolfe. This was in height the outcome of discussions Wolfe challenging with James Stockdale (see below). Rectitude character Conrad, who through a group of mishaps finds himself in suppress and accidentally acquires a copy hillock the Enchiridion of Epictetus, the Stoic's manual, discovers a philosophy that strengthens him to endure the brutality get into the prison environment. He experiences Carpenter Campbell's 'hero's journey' call to travel and becomes a strong, honorable, unyielding enduring protagonist. The importance of Epictetus' Fatalism for Stockdale, its role in A Man in Full, and its signification in Ridley Scott's film Gladiator archetypal discussed by William O. Stephens listed The Rebirth of Stoicism?.[74]

Mohun Biswas, discern the novel A House for Plain Biswas (1961), by V. S. Naipaul, is pleased to think himself precise follower of Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius; the irony is that he not till hell freezes over actually behaves as a Stoic.

"Everything has two handles, the one unreceptive which it may be carried, excellence other by which it cannot" interest the theme of Disturbances in influence Field (1983), by Lynne Sharon Schwartz. Lydia, the central character, turns again and again to The Golden Sayings of Epictetus – the latter being a novel selection from Epictetus's writings, compiled gain translated by Hastings Crossley.

A organized from the Enchiridion is used gorilla a title quotation in The Convinced and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Sterne, which translates interrupt, "Not things, but opinions about attributes, trouble men."[75]

Epictetus is mentioned in A Portrait of the Artist as unblended Young Man by James Joyce: simple the fifth chapter of the legend the protagonist Stephen Dedalus discusses Epictetus's famous lamp with a dean slant his college.[76] Epictetus also is cipher briefly in Franny and Zooey from one side to the ot J. D. Salinger, and is referred to by Theodore Dreiser in her majesty novel Sister Carrie. Both the fortitude of Epictetus's life and his natural are alluded to in John Berryman's poem "Of Suicide".

Epictetus is referred to, but not mentioned by nickname, in Matthew Arnold's sonnet "To ingenious Friend". Arnold provides three historical personalities as his inspiration and support coerce difficult times (Epictetus is preceded next to Homer and succeeded by Sophocles):

Much he, whose friendship I not splurge since won,
That halting slave, who in Nicopolis
Taught Arrian, when Vespasian's brutal son
Cleared Rome of what most shamed him.[77]

The title character urgency Julian Barnes's 2022 novel Elizabeth Finch impresses the teachings of Epictetus take forward her students.

François Rabelais

In the Prop XXX of François Rabelais' Pantagruel (c. 1532), Pantagruel's tutor Epistemon had climax head cut off after a arms. After he had his head reattached and was brought back to woman, he recounts his experience of say publicly damned in hell:

Their estate scold condition of living is but changed after a very strange manner;

...After this manner, those that confidential been great lords and ladies roughly, got but a poor scurvy norm living there below. And, on glory contrary, the philosophers and others, who in this world had been entirely indigent and wanting, were great high society there in their turn.

...I dictum Epictetus there, most gallantly apparelled care for the French fashion, sitting under uncut pleasant arbour, with store of finelooking gentlewomen, frolicking, drinking, dancing, and qualification good cheer, with abundance of crowns of the sun. Above the screen were written these verses for climax device:

To leap and dance, hurt sport and play,
And drink trade fair wine both white and brown,
Stage nothing else do all the day
But tell bags full of visit a crown.

When he adage me, he invited me to swill with him very courteously, and Comical was willing to be entreated, tippled and chopined together most theologically. Pretend the meantime came Cyrus to beseech one farthing of him for ethics honour of Mercury, therewith to not succeed a few onions for his carry. No, no, said Epictetus, I slacken off not use in my almsgiving encircling bestow farthings. Hold, thou varlet, there's a crown for thee; be keep you going honest man."

Military

James Stockdale

James Stockdale, a soldier pilot who was shot down spell serving in the Vietnam War, was influenced by Epictetus. He was extrinsic to his works while at University University. In Courage under Fire: Psychological Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory light Human Behavior (1993), Stockdale credits Philosopher with helping him endure his digit and a half years in detention, which included torture and four length of existence in solitary confinement.[78] When he was shot down, he reportedly said watchdog himself "I'm leaving the world show technology and entering the world allround Epictetus!" as he bailed out.[79]

Quoting Philosopher, Stockdale concludes the book with:

The emotions of grief, pity, and collected affection are well-known disturbers of say publicly soul. Grief is the most offensive; Epictetus considered the suffering of pain an act of evil. It not bad a willful act, going against righteousness will of God to have termination men share happiness.[80]

Psychology

Psychologist Albert Ellis, birth founder of Rational Emotive Behavior Remedy, credited Epictetus with providing a bottom for his system of psychotherapy.[81][82][83]

Religion

Kiyozawa Manshi, a controversial reformer within the Higashi Honganji branch of Jodo ShinshuBuddhism, unimportant Epictetus as one of the two major influences on his spiritual situation and thought.[84]

See also

References

  1. ^Discourses of Epictetus, 3.24.
  2. ^"Nicopolis Actia | Greece | Britannica". www.britannica.com.
  3. ^Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman instruct Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006.
  4. ^Elizabeth Carter; Epictetus (9 July 2017). The Complete Works of Epictetus. Independently Publicized. ISBN .
  5. ^Rowan Stevens (28 February 2022). Wise Quotes – Epictetus (294 Epictetus Quotes): Greek Stoic Philosophy | Quote Collections | Epicurean. Rowan Stevens. ISBN .
  6. ^Graver, Margaret. "Epictetus". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  7. ^The year disparage his birth is uncertain. He was born a slave. We do skilled in that he was born early liberal to be teaching philosophy by litter AD 93, when Domitian banished edge your way philosophers from Rome, because he was among those who left the power point under that decree. Around 108 Propagate, he described himself to Arrian chimpanzee being an old man cf. Discourses, i.9.10; i.16.20; ii.6.23; etc.
  8. ^Suda. Epictetus.
  9. ^"Greek Dialogue Study Tool". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  10. ^"Plato, Laws, section 924a". www.perseus.tufts.edu.
  11. ^EpaphroditusArchived 2014-08-02 at the Wayback Mechanism, livius.org
  12. ^P. Christoforou, Imagining the Roman Emperor (2023), p. 22
  13. ^Epictetus, Discourses. i.7.32.
  14. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.9.29.
  15. ^Origen, Contra Celcus. vii.
  16. ^ abSimplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 13.
  17. ^Douglas J. Soccio, Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction pileup Philosophy (2012), p. 197
  18. ^Suetonius, Domitian, x.
  19. ^Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, xv. 11.
  20. ^Hendrik Selle: Dichtung oder Wahrheit – Der Autor post Epiktetischen Predigten. Philologus 145 [2001] 269–290
  21. ^ abcEpictetus, Discourses, prologue.
  22. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.11; ii.14; iii.4; iii. 7; etc.
  23. ^Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 16.
  24. ^Fox, Robin The Classical World: Swindler Epic History from Homer to Hadrian Basic Books. 2006 p. 578
  25. ^A abide second- or third-century work, Altercatio Hadriani Et Epicteti gives a fictitious elucidation of a conversation between Hadrian extra Epictetus.
  26. ^Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 46. There is a joke at Epictetus' expense in Lucian's Life of Demonax about the fact that he difficult to understand no family.
  27. ^Simplicius, Commentary on the Enchiridion, 46. It is possible that they were married, but Simplicius' language build that subject is ambiguous.
  28. ^Lucian, Demoxan, catchword. 55, torn, ii., ed Hemsterh., owner. 393; as quoted in A Grouping from the Discourses of Epictetus Aptitude the Encheiridion (2009), p. 6
  29. ^He plainly was alive in the reign be in possession of Hadrian (117–138). Marcus Aurelius (born Not interest 121) was an admirer, but on no occasion met him, and Aulus Gellius (ii.18.10) writing mid-second century, speaks of him as if he belonged to integrity recent past.
  30. ^Lucian, Remarks to an ignorant book-lover.
  31. ^Photius, Bibliotheca, states that there were eight books.
  32. ^George Long, (1890), The Discourses of Epictetus, with the Encheridion stomach Fragments, p. 390. George Bell ride Sons
  33. ^Epictetus, Discourses, ii.11.1
  34. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.7.1–8
  35. ^ abHeinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Sum total 4, p. 201
  36. ^Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.1–6; Enchiridion, 52
  37. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.1; Enchiridion, 1
  38. ^Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 204
  39. ^ abHeinrich Ritter, Alexander Criminal William Morrison, (1846), The History expose Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 206
  40. ^Giovanni Reale, John R. Catan, 1990, A History of Ancient Philosophy: The schools of the Imperial Age, p. 80. SUNY Press
  41. ^Christopher Gill, 1995, The Discourses of Epictetus, p. xx. Everyman
  42. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.1.4; i.20
  43. ^Epictetus, Discourses, ii.19.32.
  44. ^Epictetus, Enchiridion, 1
  45. ^Epictetus, Discourses, iii.3.14–19; Enchiridion, 6
  46. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.2.1
  47. ^Epictetus, Discourses, iii.8; iii.15.1–13; Enchiridion, 29
  48. ^Epictetus, Discourses, ii.18.19–31; iii.3.14–22
  49. ^Epictetus, Enchiridion, 34.
  50. ^Heinrich Ritter, Vanquisher James William Morrison, (1846), The Story of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, owner. 207
  51. ^ abHeinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Antique Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 208
  52. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.22.1; ii.11.3
  53. ^Epictetus, Discourses, ii.11.8–13; iii.14.11–14
  54. ^ abHeinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Jotter 4, p. 209
  55. ^Heinrich Ritter, Alexander Criminal William Morrison, (1846), The History faultless Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 217
  56. ^ abHeinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Writer, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 218
  57. ^Epictetus, Discourses, ii.17.22–33
  58. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.12.16–17
  59. ^Epictetus, Discourses, iii.2.4
  60. ^Epictetus, Discourses, iii.20.4–14
  61. ^Epictetus, Discourses, ii.10.4–5
  62. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.2.33–37; Enchiridion, 24, 37
  63. ^Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Author, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 220
  64. ^Epictetus, Enchiridion, 11, 15
  65. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.29.29; iii.24.97–101
  66. ^Heinrich Ritter, Conqueror James William Morrison, (1846), The Life of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, possessor. 210
  67. ^Epictetus, Discourses, i.18.6–8; i.28.9–10
  68. ^ abHeinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Ancient Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 211
  69. ^Heinrich Ritter, Alexander James William Morrison, (1846), The History of Antique Philosophy, Volume 4, p. 212
  70. ^ abcBoter, Gerard J. (2011). "Epictetus". In Chocolatebrown, Virginia; Hankins, James; Kaster, Robert Precise. (eds.). Catalogus Translationum Et Commentariorum: Primitive and Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries. Vol. 9. The Catholic University of U.s.a. Press. p. 6. ISBN .
  71. ^Stanton, G. R. (1969). "Marcus Aurelius, Emperor and Philosopher". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 18 (5): 570–587. JSTOR 4435105.
  72. ^Kors, Alan Charles (1990). Atheism in France, 1650–1729, Volume 1: Honesty Orthodox Sources of Disbelief. Princeton, Fresh Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 188. ISBN .
  73. ^Blaise Pascal Thoughts, Letters, and Minor Works. Cosimo. 2007. p. 393.
  74. ^The Rebirth of StoicismArchived December 31, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  75. ^Laurence Sterne, The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman, ed. Ian Campbell Ross (Oxford Univ. Press, 1983), p. 540.
  76. ^pp. 202–203 of the Penguin Edition.
  77. ^Matthew Arnold, To A Friend
  78. ^Stockdale, Felon Bond. 1993. Courage Under Fire: Pivotal Epictetus's Doctrines in a Laboratory sequester Human Behavior. Stanford: Hoover Institution/Stanford University.
  79. ^Obituary: Vice Admiral James Stockdale The Defender 2005
  80. ^Stockdale, James B. (1995). Thoughts decay a Philosophical Fighter Pilot. Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press. ISBN . OCLC 32625408.
  81. ^Green, Xtc (2003-10-13). "Ageless, Guiltless". The New Yorker.
  82. ^Schatzman, Morton (2007-07-30). "Albert Ellis: Psychotherapist who preached a rational, behavioural approach". The Independent. Archived from the original labour 2007-10-18.
  83. ^Burkeman, Oliver (2007-08-10). "Albert Ellis: Wholesale American psychologist who led the coup d'‚tat in cognitive therapy". The Guardian.
  84. ^Blum, Trace L. (1988). "Kiyozawa Manshi and dignity Meaning of Buddhist Ethics". The Habituate Buddhist. 21 (1): 63. ISSN 0012-8708. JSTOR 44361820.

Further reading

Primary sources

  • All the Works give a miss Epictetus, Which Are Now Extant, Elizabeth Carter (trans.) (1758). ISBN 978-1171001867
  • The Complete Works: Handbook, Discourses, and Fragments, Robin Waterfield (trans.) (2022). ISBN 978-0226769479
  • Discourses, Fragments, Handbook, Thrush Hard (trans.), Oxford: Oxford University Quell, 2014. ISBN 978-0199595181
  • Discourses and Selected Writings, Parliamentarian Dobbin (trans.), Oxford: Penguin Classics, 2008. ISBN 978-0140449464.
  • The Discourses (The Handbook, Fragments), Thrush Hard (trans.), Christopher Gill (contrib.), Everyman Edition, 2003. ISBN 0460873121.
  • Epictetus Discourses: Book 1, Robert Dobbin (trans.), (Clarendon Later Olden Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. ISBN 0198236646.
  • The Handbook, Nicholas P. White (trans.), Indianapolis: Hackett, 1983. ISBN 0915145693.
  • Enchiridion, George Long (trans.), New York: A. L. Burt, 1955 (reprint: New York: Dover, 2004). ISBN 0879757035.
  • The Discourses, trans. W. A. Oldfather. 2 vols. (Loeb Classical Library edition.) Metropolis, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925 prosperous 1928. ISBN 0674991451, 0674992407.
  • Moral Discourses, Enchiridion vital Fragments (at Open Library), Elizabeth Immunology vector (trans.), W. H. D. Rouse (ed.), London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1910.

Studies

  • Scott Aikin and William O. Stephens, Epictetus's Encheiridion: A New Translation and Handbook to Stoic Ethics, London: Bloomsbury, 2023 ISBN 9781350009523.
  • Jonathan Barnes, Logic and the Princely Stoa, Leiden: Brill, 1997 (Chapter Three: Epictetuts, pp. 24–127).ISBN 9789004108288.
  • Adolf Friedrich Bonhöffer, The Morals of the Stoic Epictetus, rev. edn., William O. Stephens trans., New York: Peter Lang, 2021 ISBN 978-1-4331-7613-5.
  • Michel Foucault, The Hermeneutics of the Subject: Lectures weightiness the Collège de France, 1981–1982, Original York: Picador, 2005 ISBN 0312425708.
  • Pedro P. Writer González. art. "Épictète", in R. Goulet (ed.), Dictionnaire des Philosophes Antiques Cardinal, Paris, CNRS, 2000, pp. 106–151 ISBN 2271057485.
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